Women in Sweden

Women in Sweden

Three Swedish women during the traditional Swedish celebration midsommar
See also Feminism in Sweden

The status and rights of Women in Sweden has been affected by culture, religion and social discourses such as by the strong feminist movement as well as laws, and changed several times through the history of Sweden.

History of women in Sweden

Blenda by August Malmström (1829–1901)
Viking age

During the Viking Age, women had a relatively free status in the Nordic countries of Sweden, Denmark and Norway, illustrated in the Icelandic Grágás and the Norwegian Frostating laws and Gulating laws.[1] The paternal aunt, paternal niece and paternal granddaughter, referred to as odalkvinna, all had the right to inherit property from a deceased man.[1] In the absence of male relatives, an unmarried woman with no son could further more inherit the position as head of the family from a deceased father or brother: a woman with such status was referred to as ringkvinna, and she exercised all the rights afforded to the head of a family clan, such as the right to demand and receive fines for the slaughter of a family member, until she married, by which her rights were transferred to her husband.[1] After the age of 20, an unmarried woman, referred to as maer and mey, reached legal majority and had the right to decide of her place of residence and was regarded as her own person before the law.[1] An exception to her independence was the right to choose a marriage partner, as marriages was normally arranged by the clan.[1] Widows enjoyed the same independent status as unmarried women.

Women had religious authority and were active as priestesses (gydja) and oracles (sejdkvinna); they were active within art as poets (skalder) and rune masters, and as merchants and medicine women.[2] A married woman could divorce and remarry. It was also socially acceptable for a free woman to cohabit with a man and have children with him without marrying him, even if that man was married: a woman in such a position was called frilla.[3] There was no distinction made between children born inside or outside of marriage: both had the right to inherit property after their parents, and there was no "legitimate" or "illegitimate" children.[3] These rights gradually disappeared from the local county laws after Christianization in the 11th century.

Middle ages and early modern age

During the Middle Ages, the status and rights of women varied between different parts of the country, as the local county laws applied different laws in different counties. The first attempt of a national law was Magnus Erikssons landslag from 1350, which established one law for the country side, and one Stadslagen (City Law) for the city,[3] a system which was kept by the Kristofers landslag from 1442.[4] From of 1350 onward, the civil status of women were generally the same in both the county law and the city law: an unmarried woman was under the coverture of her closest male relative, and a wife under the coverture of her husband, while a widow was of legal majority.[3]

In 1608, the law texts of the Old Testament from the bible were introduced in the law by amendments,[5] which at least formally significantly worsened women's status. There was, however, a gap between law and practice: despite the fact that unmarried women were legal minors and only widows had the right to represent themselves in court, unmarried women were still in practice allowed to give testimony, sue and represent themselves in court matters, to such a degree that a law reform granted them this right in 1686 to legalize what was already common procedure.[3]

The national heroine Christina Gyllenstierna (1494–1559), 16th century sculpture by the altar of Västerås Cathedral.
County Law

From the Magnus Erikssons landslag of 1350 onward, daughters in the country side inherited half as much as sons.[3] From 1686, the Swedish Church Law 1686 obliged every parish in the country side to provide elementary education to all children regardless of gender, usually provided by the vicar or a teacher employed by the vicarage.[6]

In the country side, professions were regulated by custom rather than laws. When unmarried, a woman from the peasantry would be expected by social custom to serve in the household of another peasant family as a piga (maid), which was regarded as a way to learn household experience before marriage and was not seen as servitude: when married, the wives of farmers, fishermen and miners all traditionally participated alongside their husbands in their professions, handled them alone in their absence and, if their husbands died without an adult son, in their own name as widows.[3] At least since the 17th century and until the 19th century, women were known to labor as miners and blacksmiths, referred to as gruvpiga (Maid of the Mine).[3]

The custom of a wife acting as the proxy of her husband afforded considerable independence to women especially during the 17th century, when the men were called to serve in numerous wars and their wives were left behind to manage the family affairs in their absence, which was the case both with the wives of common farmer-soldiers as well as with the wives of noblemen, who were left with the responsibility of wast estates and parishes and the task to act as channels to the crown for the estate dependents.[3] In the local community, the wives of the parish vicars had a strong position as a sort of caretaker of the parish social welfare, a position maintained by the system of Widow Conservation until the 19th century.

City Law

From the Magnus Erikssons landslag of 1350, the city law granted daughters and sons equal inheritance rights.[3] In the Swedish Church Ordinance 1571, the city law encouraged parents to provide primary education to their children regardless of sex,[7] and from the late 16th century onward, the city schools are confirmed to have accepted girls, though normally only in the first classes.[8] Ursula Agricola from Strasbourg and Maria Jonae Palmgren from Grenna, however, were both accepted at Visingsö Gymnasium (school) in the 1640s.

From the 14th century until 1846, many professions in the cities were monopolized by the guilds. Women were, however, not excluded from guild membership. Widows became members with the license to practice the profession of their late spouse until remarriage: they could also be given a permit to practice some other trade.[3] Formally, many guilds excluded married and unmarried women, however in practice there are numerous examples of married and unmarried female guild members.[3] There were also exclusively female guilds, such as that of the midwifes and that of the Rower woman. In 1460, 180 female guild members were listed for the city of Stockholm: the profession is not stated for the majority of them, but when it is, the most common professions for city women were brewer, baker, seamstress and washer woman, professions which continued to be common for city women in the following centuries.[3]

There were also professions outside of the guilds, such as the profession of Mursmäcka. A woman regardless of personal status could purchase a permit, to be active within trade of export and import without guild membership and be a Kontingentborgare.[3] The city also issued the permit of månglare.[3] This was a permit to manufacture and, or, sell goods which was not included in the guild monopolies from stands in the square or in the street, often old clothes, ornaments, jam and cakes, and from 1623, such permits was issued only to those who could prove that they had no other way to support themselves. Such persons were normally women: either widows, or married women whose husbands was unable to support them.[9]

Age of Enlightenment

Ulrica Pasch.

The first law to apply the same rights to all women in the entire country by national law (including Finland, then a Swedish province), was the Civil Code of 1734, which, in the question of women's status, was in place more or less unaltered until the second half of the 19th century. In the Civil Code of 1734, all unmarried women were defined as legal minors regardless of age, and placed under the guardianship of their closest male relative (or mother, if the mother was widowed).[10] She was given the right to contest her guardian in court and have another appointed by the court, and when adult, she had the right to make a will.[10] Finally, an unmarried woman could be liberated from guardianship by a petition to the monarch (one notable example of this was Charlotta Richardy). Upon the day of her marriage, she was placed under the coverture of her husband. However, men was banned from selling the property of their wife without her consent, wives were given the right to sell property and handle affairs in the absence of her husband, and both spouses regardless of gender were secured the right to divorce upon adultery, upon which the innocent party was secured custody of the children.[10] When widowed (or divorced), a woman regardless of age reached legal majority.[10]

There were some reforms in favor of women, most of them issued by local city authorities to make it possible for destitute women to support themselves, notably the reform of 1741 dropping guild membership requirement for innkeepers,[11] and the reform of 1749, in which the permit to engage in street- and market trade in Stockholm were to be issued in favor of poor women,[12] reforms which made two very common professions for poor women more accessible.

In 1741, a reform abolished the Public humiliation punishment of Uppenbar kyrkoplikt for unmarried mothers to prevent infanticide,[13] and in 1778, the Infanticide Act (Sweden) was introduced: in order to spare unmarried mothers from the social stigma which was the common motive for them to kill their infants, mothers were allowed to travel to a place where they were unknown by the community and give birth anonymously, midwives were forbidden to expose their identity, and should they decide to keep their child, their unmarried status was to be hidden by the authorities to spare them social embarrassment.[14]

The Age of Enlightenment in many ways offered a more public role for women in Sweden, especially within the artistic professions, and women were officially recognized: Eva Ekeblad was inducted in the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Ulrika Pasch in the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts, and Elisabeth Olin in the Royal Swedish Academy of Music.

Numerous schools for girls were founded in the 18th century: in 1786, Societetsskolan, the first serious educational institution for females, was founded. An achievement to arouse attention was that of Aurora Liljenroth, who graduated from the gymnasium of Visingsö in 1788.[15]

19th century

The popular writer Sophie von Knorring by Maria Röhl in 1842

In the first half of the 19th century, a population growth, in combination with changes in society caused by the economic crisis of the Napoleonic Wars and the industrialization, resulted in a growing number of unmarried women, for which the traditional role to support themselves by marriage was not available. Schools open to females normally offered a shallow education of accomplishments, focused on making their students ideal wives and mothers, and virtually the only profession open for an educated woman was that of a governess or a teacher in a private girls school.[16]

By the 1840s, there was an ongoing debate as to how to provide women with an opportunity to support themselves as useful productive members of society should they fail to marry, without having to rely on the charity of relatives or resort to crime.[16] The customary shallow education was harshly criticized, and in 1842, girls were included in the compulsory primary education school system.[16] In parallel, under the pressure of the public debate, the old shallow private girl schools were gradually replaced by a new type of private secondary education schools for females, with the task to provide them with education useful for a professional life: in 1842, there were only five such schools in Sweden, but a rapid expansion from that point on resulted in the existence of such schools in most Swedish cities already in the 1870s.[16]

Anna Sandström, reform educator within women's education.

The argument of the reformists in parliament that more professions should be open for women to make it possible for unmarried women to support themselves caused a row of reforms in women's rights: equal inheritance rights in 1845; equal rights within trade and commerce in 1846 and the professions of teacher in the public school system (1853), Feldsher, organist and dentist (1861) and positions at the telegraph- and postal offices (1863). Each of these reforms gave the reformists in parliament arguments for further reforms, arguing that it was the responsibility of the state, who had granted women these new rights, to provide them with the education and the juridical status necessary to handle them: in 1858-63, unmarried women were granted legal majority, and after the recommendations made by the radical Girl School Committee of 1866, the profession of a doctor and the right for women to attend university was finally introduced.[16]

The 19th century signified the organization of women to participate in public life and social reform: initially, from the foundation of the Välgörande fruntimmerssällskapet in 1819 onward, women organized in civil charitable organizations, which became an acceptable way for a woman to play a public role and achieve social reform, and women became known public role models as social reformers, such as Emilie Petersen, Sophia Wilkens and Maria Cederschiöld (deaconess), which lay the foundation for women's participation in public life.

Women's organization, initially charitable, took a more radical form when the feminist movement was established. In 1848, Sophie Sager aroused controversy when reporting and winning a rape attempt, after which she became the first woman in Sweden to tour and make public speeches in favor of feminism.[17] In 1855, women arguably organized for the first time to deal with an issue within women's rights, when Josefina Deland founded the Svenska lärarinnors pensionsförening (The Society for Retired Female Teachers) to provide for retired female teachers and governesses,[18] and from 1856, the Tidskrift för hemmet became the first regular feminist spokes organ. During the second half of the century, the women's movement organized with the Married Woman's Property Rights Association (1873) and the Fredrika-Bremer-Förbundet (1884), and started to make demands of their own. From the 1880s, women such as Emilie Rathou, Elma Danielsson, Alina Jägerstedt and Kata Dahlström engaged in the temperance movement, the working class movement, the trade unions and the political press and media.

20th century

In 1902, the National Association for Women's Suffrage was formed to achieve the final reform in women's civil rights: women suffrage. In 1909, an important step was made when the phrase "Swedish man" was removed from the application forms to public offices and civil servant occupations, which lifted a number of professional bars and gave women access to many professional opportunities which had until then been denied them even when they had the necessary education: a typical example was, that women had previously been barred from being professors at a state university, or doctor at a state hospital, because such positions in state institutions had a civil servant status - while in the same time, they could work in such positions in private institutions.[19]

In 1919-21, women suffrage was finally introduced, and in connection to this, in 1920 married women were liberated from the guardianship of their spouses and granted legal majority.[20] The women suffrage reform was followed by the Behörighetslagen (Act of Eligibility) of 1923, in which males and females were formally guaranteed equal access to all professions and positions in society, the only exceptions being military and priesthood positions.[21] The last two restrictions were removed in 1958, when women were allowed to become priests, and in a series of reforms between 1980 and 1989, when all military professions were opened to women.[22]

Feminism and women's movement in Sweden

Main article: Feminism in Sweden
Gudrun Schyman speaks for Feminist Initiative (Sweden) (Fi), in Stockholm

Feminism in Sweden dates back to the 17th century and has been discussed in intellectual circles throughout the 18th century. Since Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht's famous poem Fruntimrens försvar (To the Defense of Women, 1761) debate on gender roles and gender equality has become a mainstream topic. Since then, Sweden has remained a forerunner of gender equality driven by a both intellectual and practical feminist movement.

Today, with its increasing multiculturalism, Swedish society has embraced third-wave feminism. Sweden's Feminist Initiative became the second feminist political party (after Miljöpartiet) to win a parliamentary mandate in the 2014 European elections, rediscussing feminism from a decisively antiracist perspective that includes the perspectives of people of color.

Specific issues within gender equality

Women's suffrage

Swedish suffragist Signe Bergman, around 1910
Women's suffrage demonstration in Gothenburg, June 1918.

During the Age of Liberty (1718–1772), Sweden had conditional women suffrage.[23] Until the reform of 1865, the local elections consisted of mayoral elections in the cities, and elections of parish vicars in the countryside parishes. The Sockenstämma was the local parish council who handled local affairs, in which the parish vicar presided and the local peasantry assembled and voted, an informally regulated process in which women are reported to have participated already in the 17th century.[24] The national elections consisted of the election of the representations to the Riksdag of the Estates.

Suffrage was gender neutral and therefore applied to women as well as men if they filled the qualifications of a voting citizen.[23] These qualifications were changed during the course of the 18th century, as well as the local interpretation of the credentials, affecting the number of qualified voters: the qualifications also differed between cities and countryside, as well as local or national elections.[23]

Initially, the right to vote in local city elections (mayoral elections) was granted to every burgher, which was defined as a taxpaying citizen with a guild membership.[23] Women as well as men were members of guilds, which resulted in women suffrage for a limited number of women.[23] In 1734, suffrage in both national and local elections, in cities as well as countryside, was granted to every property owning taxpaying citizen of legal majority.[23] This extended suffrage to all taxpaying property owning women whether guild members or not, but excluded married women and the majority of unmarried women, as married women were defined as legal minors, and unmarried women were minors unless they applied for legal majority by royal dispensation, while widowed and divorced women were of legal majority.[23] The 1734 reform increased the participation of women in elections from 55 to 71 percent.[23]

Between 1726 and 1742, women voted in 17 of 31 examined mayoral elections.[23] Reportedly, some women voters in mayoral elections preferred to appoint a male to vote for them by proxy in the city hall because they found it embarrassing to do so in person, which was cited as a reason to abolish women suffrage by its opponents.[23] The custom to appoint to vote by proxy was however used also by males, and it was in fact common for men, who were absent or ill during elections, to appoint their wives to vote for them.[23] In 1758, women were excluded from mayoral elections by a new regulation by which they could no longer be defined as burghers, but women suffrage was kept in the national elections as well as the country side parish elections.[23] Women participated in all of the eleven national elections held up until 1757.[23] In 1772, women suffrage in national elections was abolished by demand from the burgher estate. Women suffrage was first abolished for taxpaying unmarried women of legal majority, and then for widows.[23] However, the local interpretation of the prohibition of women suffrage varied, and some cities continued to allow women to vote: in Kalmar, Växjö, Västervik, Simrishamn, Ystad, Åmål, Karlstad, Bergslagen, Dalarna and Norrland, women was allowed to continue to vote despite the 1772 ban, while in Lund, Uppsala, Skara, Åbo, Gothenburg and Marstrand, women were strictly barred from the vote after 1772.[23]

While women suffrage was banned in the mayoral elections in 1758 and in the national elections in 1772, no such bar was ever introduced in the local elections in the country side, were women therefore continued to vote in the local parish elections of vicars.[23] In a series of reforms in 1813-1817, unmarried women of legal majority, "Unmarried maiden, who has been declared of legal majority", were given the right to vote in the sockestämma (local parish council, the predecessor of the communal and city councils), and the kyrkoråd (local church councils).[25]

In 1823, a suggestion was raised by the mayor of Strängnäs to reintroduce women suffrage for taxpaying women of legal majority (unmarried, divorced and widowed women) in the mayoral elections, and this right was reintroduced in 1858.[26]

In 1862, tax-paying women of legal majority (unmarried, divorced and widowed women) were again allowed to vote in municipal elections, making Sweden the first country in the world to grant women the right to vote. This was after the introduction of a new political system, were a new local authority was introduced: the communal municipal council. The right to vote in municipal elections applied only to people of legal majority, which excluded married women, as they were juridically under the guardianship of their husbands. In 1884 the suggestion to grant women the right to vote in national elections was initially voted down in Parliament.[27] During the 1880s, the Married Woman's Property Rights Association had a campaign to encourage the female voters, qualified to vote in accordance with the 1862 law, to use their vote and increase the participation of women voters in the elections, but there was yet no public demand to women suffrage among women. In 1888, the temperance activist Emilie Rathou became the first woman in Sweden to demand the right for women suffrage in a public speech.[28] In 1899, a delegation from the Fredrika-Bremer-Förbundet presented a suggestion of woman suffrage to prime minister Erik Gustaf Boström. The delegation was headed by Agda Montelius, accompanied by Gertrud Adelborg, who had written the demand. This was the first time the Swedish women's movement themselves had officially presented a demand for suffrage.

In 1902 the National Association for Women's Suffrage was founded. In 1906 the suggestion of women's suffrage was voted down in parliament again.[29] In 1909, the right to vote in municipal elections were extended to include also married women.[30] The same year, women were granted eligibility to municipal councils,[30] and in the following 1910–11 municipal elections, forty women were elected to different municipal councils,[29] Gertrud Månsson being the first. In 1914 Emilia Broomé became the first woman in the legislative assembly.[31]

The right to vote in national elections was not returned to women until 1919, and was practised again in the election of 1921, for the first time in 150 years.[32]

After the 1921 election, the first women were elected to Swedish Parliament after the suffrage: Kerstin Hesselgren in the Upper chamber and Nelly Thüring (Social Democrat), Agda Östlund (Social Democrat) Elisabeth Tamm (liberal) and Bertha Wellin (Conservative) in the Lower chamber. Karin Kock-Lindberg became the first female government minister, and in 1958, Ulla Lindström became the first acting Prime Minister.[33]

Parliamentary appointments and elections

After the 1921 election, the first women were elected to Swedish Parliament after the suffrage: Kerstin Hesselgren in the Upper chamber and Nelly Thüring (Social Democrat), Agda Östlund (Social Democrat) Elisabeth Tamm (liberal) and Bertha Wellin (Conservative) in the Lower chamber. It was not be until 1961, however, that women held more than 10% seats in parliament.[3]

In 1947, Karin Kock-Lindberg became the first female government minister, and in 1958, Ulla Lindström became the first acting Prime Minister.[34] It was not be until 1966, however, that there were more than one woman in the cabinet in the same time.[3]

The election of 1994 signified a breakthrough in this aspect: for the first time on history, women had more than 40% of the seats of parliament, and half of the cabinet positions in government. This made Sweden unique in the world at the time.[3]

Family life

As in many other Western countries, the connection between fertility and marriage has been significantly weakened in the past decades. Sweden was one of the first European countries to change its social norms towards unmarried cohabitation and childbearing, at a time where this was still seen as unacceptable in many other parts of the continent.

Reproductive rights and sexuality

Further information: Abortion in Sweden

Sweden provides for sex education in schools. The age of consent in Sweden is 15. Contraception was legalized in 1938.[35] Abortion was allowed on certain conditions by the Abortion Act of 1938. Free abortion was permitted through the Abortion Act of 1974.

Women pioneers

The names are placed in chronological order:

Nancy Edberg.
Gun Hägglund.
Mona Sahlin.

Academics

Politics

Professions

Timeline of women's rights in Sweden

1718
1734
1741
1749
1772
1778
1798
1804
1810
1829
1842
1845
1846
1853
1858
1859
1861
1863
1864
1869
1870
1872
1874
1889
1900
1901
1902
1906
1908
1909
1920
1923
1938
1939
1947
1948
1958

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Borgström Eva (Swedish): Makalösa kvinnor: könsöverskridare i myt och verklighet (Marvelous women : gender benders in myth and reality) Alfabeta/Anamma, Stockholm 2002. ISBN 91-501-0191-9 (inb.). Libris 8707902.
  2. ↑ Ingelman-Sundberg, Catharina, Forntida kvinnor: jägare, vikingahustru, prästinna [Ancient women: hunters, viking wife, priestess], Prisma, Stockholm, 2004
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Ohlander, Ann-Sofie & Strömberg, Ulla-Britt, Tusen svenska kvinnoår: svensk kvinnohistoria från vikingatid till nutid, 3. (A Thousand Swedish Women's Years: Swedish Women's History from the Viking Age until now), [omarb. och utök.] uppl., Norstedts akademiska förlag, Stockholm, 2008
  4. ↑ Nationalencyklopedin (NE)
  5. ↑ Granström, Görel, Kvinnorna och rätten: från stormaktstid till rösträttsstrid, Hallgren & Fallgren, Uppsala, 1996
  6. ↑ Du Rietz, Anita, Kvinnors entreprenörskap: under 400 år, 1. uppl., Dialogos, Stockholm, 2013
  7. ↑ Du Rietz, Anita, Kvinnors entreprenörskap: under 400 år, 1. uppl., Dialogos, Stockholm, 2013
  8. ↑ Eva Österberg, red (1997). Jämmerdal & Fröjdesal. Kvinnor i stormaktstidens Sverige. Stockholm: Atlantis AB. ISBN 91-7486-355-X
  9. ↑ Historisk Tidskrift 134:1, 2014
  10. 1 2 3 4 Sweriges Rikes Lag. Gillad och Antagen på Riksdagen Åhr 1734
  11. 1 2 3 Mot halva makten – elva historiska essäer om kvinnors strategier och mäns motstånd Redaktör: Ingrid Hagman. Rapport till Utredningen om fördelningen av ekonomisk makt och ekonomiska resurser mellan kvinnor och män Stockholm 1997
  12. 1 2 "Spanska citroner till salu", ur Historisk Tidskrift 134:1, 2014
  13. ↑ Ohlander, Ann-Sofie, Kärlek, död och frihet: historiska uppsatser om människovärde och livsvillkor i Sverige, Norstedt, Stockholm, 1985
  14. ↑ Lindstedt Cronberg, Marie, 'Barnamordsplakatet: en straffrättsreform med oanade konsekvenser', Brottsförebyggande rådets tidskrift Apropå., 1994:1, s. 24-29, 1994
  15. ↑ En qvinlig svensk gymnasist för hundra år sedan. Af G. E-m 84 ur Tidskrift för hemmet Årgång 22 (1880)
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 Gunhild Kyle (1972). Svensk flickskola under 1800-talet. [Swedish Girl School in the 19th-century] Göteborg: Kvinnohistoriskt arkiv. ISBN
  17. ↑ Kyle, Gunhild; Krusenstjerna, Eva von (1993). Kvinnoprofiler. Panorama (Natur och kultur), 99-0913791-7. Stockholm: Natur och kultur.
  18. ↑ Chief editor: Nils Bohman, Svenska män och kvinnor. 2, C-F (Swedish Men and Women. 2, C-F) dictionary (1944) (in Swedish)
  19. ↑ "Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek: Akademikeryrken". Ub.gu.se. 2010-11-17. Retrieved 2013-10-07.
  20. ↑ Lilla Focus Uppslagsbok (Little Focus Encyclopedia) Focus Uppslagsböcker AB (1979) (Swedish)
  21. 1 2 Lilla Focus Uppslagsbok (1979)
  22. ↑ Sundevall, Fia (2011). Det sista manliga yrkesmonopolet: genus och militärt arbete i Sverige 1865-1989. Diss. Stockholm : Stockholms universitet, 2011
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Karlsson Sjögren, Åsa, Männen, kvinnorna och rösträtten: medborgarskap och representation 1723-1866 [Men, women and suffrage: citizenship and representation 1723-1866], Carlsson, Stockholm, 2006 (in Swedish)
  24. ↑ Du Rietz, Anita, Kvinnors entreprenörskap: under 400 år, 1. uppl., Dialogos, Stockholm, 2013
  25. ↑ Ann Margret Holmgren: Kvinnorösträttens historia i de nordiska länderna (1920)
  26. ↑ Du Rietz, Anita, Kvinnors entreprenörskap: under 400 år, 1. uppl., Dialogos, Stockholm, 2013
  27. ↑ Christer Palmquist & Hans Kristian Widberg (2004). Millenium. Samhällskunska (in Swedish). Bonniers. p. 317. ISBN 91-622-599-54.
  28. ↑ Emilie Rathou, urn:sbl:7563, Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (art av Hjördis Levin), hämtad 2015-05-30.
  29. 1 2 3 "Runeberg.org". Runeberg.org. Retrieved 2011-01-08.
  30. 1 2 Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 15. Kromat - Ledvätska
  31. ↑ Article about Emilia Broomé on the webpage of Gothenburg University Library.
  32. ↑ Åsa Karlsson-Sjögren: Männen, kvinnorna och rösträtten : medborgarskap och representation 1723–1866 ("Men, women and the vote: citizenship and representation 1723–1866") (in Swedish)
  33. ↑ (Swedish) Mikael Sjögren, Statsrådet och genusordningen – Ulla Lindström 1954–1966 (Minister and Gender – Ulla Lindström 1954–1966)
  34. ↑ (Swedish) Mikael Sjögren, Statsrådet och genusordningen – Ulla Lindström 1954–1966 (Minister and Gender – Ulla Lindström 1954–1966)
  35. ↑ Palmquist, Christer; Widberg, Hans Kristian (2004). Millenium Samhällskunskap A (in Swedish). Bonniers. p. 317. ISBN 9789162259952.
  36. ↑ Anna Johanna Charlotta Lagerberg i Wilhelmina Stålberg, Anteckningar om svenska qvinnor (1864)
  37. ↑ Lindorm, Erik: Gustaf V och hans tid. 1928-1938 (1979)
  38. ↑ Kvinnoprästfrågan i Nationalencyklopedin
  39. ↑ Polistidningen nr 10 2007, 12 oktober 2007: Från syster till kollega, läst 12 juli 2012
  40. ↑ Åsa Karlsson-Sjögren : Männen, kvinnorna och rösträtten: medborgarskap och representation 1723–1866 (Men, women and the vote: citizenship and representation 1723–1866)(Swedish)
  41. ↑ Sweriges Rikes Lag. Gillad och Antagen på Riksdagen Åhr 1734
  42. ↑ Qvist, Gunnar, Fredrika Bremer och kvinnans emancipation, 1969
  43. 1 2 Carl Grimberg: Svenska folkets underbara öden / IX. Den sociala och kulturella utvecklingen från Oskar I:s tid till våra dagar samt De politiska förhållandena under Karl XV:s, Oscar II:s och Gustaf V:s regering 1859-1923 (1913-1939)
  44. ↑ Carl Grimberg: Svenska folkets underbara öden / IX. Den sociala och kulturella utvecklingen från Oskar I:s tid till våra dagar samt De politiska förhållandena under Karl XV:s, Oscar II:s och Gustaf V:s regering 1859-1923 (1913-1939)
  45. ↑ Christine Bladh (Swedish): Månglerskor: att sälja från korg och bod i Stockholm 1819–1846 (1991)
  46. 1 2 Mansdominans i förändring, om ledningsgrupper och styrelser: betänkande by Sverige Utredningen om kvinnor på ledande poster i näringslivet (SOU 2003:16). Stockholm: Edita Norstedts Tryckeri AB. 2003. ISBN 91-38-21953-0.
  47. ↑ (Swedish) Stig Hadenius, Torbjörn Nilsson & Gunnar Åselius: Sveriges historia. Vad varje svensk bör veta (History of Sweden: "What every Swede should know")
  48. ↑ "Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek: Kampen om kunskapen av Christina Florin, professor i kvinnohistoria". Ub.gu.se. Retrieved 2013-10-07.
  49. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lilla Focus Uppslagsbok (Little Focus Encyclopedia) Focus Uppslagsböcker AB (1979) (Swedish)
  50. 1 2 "Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek: Viktiga årtal". Ub.gu.se. 2011-12-21. Retrieved 2013-10-07.
  51. ↑ Inger Hultgren (Swedish): Kvinnors organisation och samhällets beslutsprocess (1982)
  52. ↑ Sidansvarig: KvinnSam. "Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek: Årtalslistor". Ub.gu.se. Retrieved 2013-10-07.
  53. ↑ Österberg, Carin et al., Svenska kvinnor: föregångare, nyskapare (Swedish women: predecessors, successors) Lund: Signum 1990. (ISBN 91-87896-03-6) (Swedish)
  54. 1 2 3 Axianne Thorstenson (1918), Kvinnornas Stallning Inom Yrkena (PDF), Trykeri-A.-B. Ferm
  55. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Palmquist, Christer; Widberg, Hans Kristian (2004). Millenium Samhällskunskap A (in Swedish). Bonniers. p. 317. ISBN 9789162259952.
  56. ↑ Nordisk Familjejournal
  57. 1 2 "Göteborgs universitetsbibliotek: Akademikeryrken". Ub.gu.se. 2010-11-17. Retrieved 2013-10-07.
  58. ↑ 417–418 (Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 15. Kromat – Ledvätska)
  59. ↑ Dahlgren, Johanna (2007). Kvinnor i polistjänst (PDF). Svenskt biografiskt lexikon (in Swedish) (Department of Historical Studies, Umeå University). ISBN 978-91-7264-314-7. Retrieved 17 August 2015.
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