Palythoa

Palythoa
Palythoa grandis
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Cnidaria
Class: Anthozoa
Subclass: Hexacorallia
Order: Zoantharia
Family: Sphenopidae
Genus: Palythoa
Lamouroux, 1816

Palythoa is a genus of anthozoans in the order Zoantharia.[1][2]

Description

The polyps of Palythoa are partially embedded in an encrusting mat of tissue (coenenchyme) covering the substrate on which the colony grows. The individual polyps have flattened oral discs surrounded by a fringe of tentacles. The tentacles' shape and size can vary considerably between species, and even between colonies of the same species. Their colors are also highly variable, with relatively dull shades like cream, coffee, white, brown, or yellow, being the most common. Fluorescent colored colonies also exist, but these are more rare.[3][4]

Palytoxin

Palytoxin is a highly toxic fatty alcohol produced by many species of Palythoa, and is also found in other corals and certain marine invertebrates. The substance was first isolated from the seaweed-like "limu-make-o-Hana" ("Seaweed of Death from Hana") in 1971 in Hawaii. Scientific investigation of the seaweed found it to be a colonial cnidarian, which was classified as a zoanthid and named Palythoa toxica. Small quantities of palytoxin can be fatal should it be ingested or inhaled.

The presence of this toxin is of significance to aquarists who keep reef aquariums, as Palythoa and related zoanthids are commonly kept as decorative specimens in marine aquaria. Aquarists have reported symptoms consistent with palytoxin poisoning prior to having exposure to zoanthids suspected to contain the toxin. One report involved an aquarist being accidentally poisoned through skin injuries after handling zoanthids[5] Another report involved an aquarium hobbyist in Virginia who experienced a severe respiratory reaction after trying to eradicate colonies of brown zoanthids (suspected to be Palythoa) from rocks in their aquarium.[6] A 2010 study found that a single specimen of Palythoa from a sample of fifteen colonies purchased from three aquarium stores in the Washington D.C. area contained high levels of palytoxin, indicating that toxic individuals are present in the captive population.[7]

While poisoning events have occurred, they are exceedingly rare, and many reef hobbyists have kept Palythoa without any adverse reactions. However, It is generally recommended to always wear appropriate protective gloves and goggles when reaching into aquaria and handling animals which are suspected to be toxic.[8]

Protopalythoa

Protopalythoa is a genus once thought to be related to, but separate from, the genus Palythoa. The taxonomy of these genera is currently uncertain, and Protopalythoa species may actually be members of Palythoa.[9][10]

Species

¹Indicates Species Unreviewed: has not been verified by a taxonomic editor

  1. Palythoa aggregata Lesson, 1830
  2. Palythoa anneae Carlgren, 1938
  3. Palythoa anthoplax Pax & Müller, 1957¹
  4. Palythoa arenacea Heller, 1868
  5. Palythoa argus Ehrenberg, 1834
  6. Palythoa aspera Pax, 1909
  7. Palythoa atogrisea Pax, 1924
  8. Palythoa australiae Carlgren, 1937¹
  9. Palythoa australiensis Carlgren, 1950
  10. Palythoa bertholeti Gray, 1867
  11. Palythoa brasiliensis Heider, 1899
  12. Palythoa braunsi Pax, 1924
  13. Palythoa brochi Pax, 1924
  14. Palythoa buitendijkl Pax, 1924
  15. Palythoa caesia Dana, 1846
  16. Palythoa calcaria Muller, 1883
  17. Palythoa calcigena Pax, 1924
  18. Palythoa calycina Pax, 1909
  19. Palythoa canalifera Pax, 1908
  20. Palythoa canariensis Haddon & Duerden, 1896
  21. Palythoa cancrisocia Martens, 1876
  22. Palythoa capensis Haddon & Duerden, 1896¹
  23. Palythoa caracasiana Pax, 1924
  24. Palythoa caribaeorum (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
  25. Palythoa ceresina Pax & Muller, 1956
  26. Palythoa chlorostoma Pax & Muller, 1956
  27. Palythoa cingulata Milne Edwards, 1857
  28. Palythoa clavata (Duchassaing, 1850)
  29. Palythoa complanata Carlgren, 1951¹
  30. Palythoa congoensis Pax, 1952
  31. Palythoa dartevellei Pax, 1952
  32. Palythoa densa Carlgren, 1954¹
  33. Palythoa denudata Dana, 1846
  34. Palythoa dura Carlgren, 1920
  35. Palythoa durbanensis Carlgren, 1938¹
  36. Palythoa dysancrita Pax & Muller, 1956
  37. Palythoa eremita Pax, 1920
  38. Palythoa fatua Schultze, 1867
  39. Palythoa flavoviridis Ehrenberg, 1834
  40. Palythoa fuliginosa Dana, 1846
  41. Palythoa fusca (Duerden, 1898)
  42. Palythoa glareola (Lesueur, 1817)
  43. Palythoa glutinosa Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1864
  44. Palythoa grandiflora (Verrill, 1900)
  45. Palythoa grandis (Verrill, 1900)
  46. Palythoa gregorii Haddon & Duerden, 1896
  47. Palythoa gridellii Pax & Muller, 1956
  48. Palythoa guangdongensis Zunan, 1998¹
  49. Palythoa guinensis von Koch, 1886¹
  50. Palythoa haddoni Carlgren, 1937¹
  51. Palythoa halidosis Pax, 1952
  52. Palythoa hartmeyeri Pax, 1910
  53. Palythoa heideri Carlgren, 1954¹
  54. Palythoa heilprini (Verrill, 1900)
  55. Palythoa heliodiscus (Ryland & Lancaster, 2003)
  56. Palythoa horstii Pax, 1924
  57. Palythoa howesii Haddon & Shackleton, 1891¹
  58. Palythoa hypopelia Pax, 1909
  59. Palythoa ignota Carlgren, 1951
  60. Palythoa incerta Carlgren, 1900
  61. Palythoa insignis Carlgren, 1951
  62. Palythoa irregularis Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860
  63. Palythoa isolata Verrill, 1907
  64. Palythoa javanica Pax, 1924
  65. Palythoa kochii Haddon & Shackleton, 1891
  66. Palythoa leseuri Klunzinger, 1877
  67. Palythoa leucochiton Pax & Muller, 1956
  68. Palythoa liscia Haddon & Duerden, 1896
  69. Palythoa mammillosa (Ellis & Solander, 1786)
  70. Palythoa mizigama Irei, Sinniger & Reimer, 2015
  71. Palythoa monodi Pax & Muller, 1956
  72. Palythoa multisulcata Carlgren, 1900¹
  73. Palythoa mutuki (Haddon & Shackleton, 1891)
  74. Palythoa natalensis Carlgren, 1938
  75. Palythoa nelliae Pax, 1935
  76. Palythoa nigricans McMurrich, 1898
  77. Palythoa oorti Pax, 1924
  78. Palythoa psammophilia Walsh & Bowers, 1971
  79. Palythoa senegalensis Pax & Muller, 1956
  80. Palythoa senegambiensis Carter, 1882
  81. Palythoa shackletoni Carlgren, 1937
  82. Palythoa sinensis Zunan, 1998¹
  83. Palythoa singaporensis Pax & Müller, 1956¹
  84. Palythoa spongiosa Andres, 1883
  85. Palythoa stephensoni Carlgren, 1937¹
  86. Palythoa texaensis Carlgren & Hedgpeth, 1952
  87. Palythoa titanophila Pax & Müller, 1957¹
  88. Palythoa toxica Walsh & Bowers, 1971
  89. Palythoa tropica Carlgren, 1900
  90. Palythoa tuberculosa (Esper, 1791)
  91. Palythoa umbrosa Irei, Sinniger & Reimer, 2015
  92. Palythoa variabilis (Duerden, 1898)
  93. Palythoa wilsmoorei Wilsmore¹
  94. Palythoa xishaensis Zunan, 1998¹
  95. Palythoa yongei Carlgren, 1937¹
  96. Palythoa zanzibarica Carlgren¹

Taxon inquirendum:

  • Palythoa anduzii (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
  • Palythoa auricula (Lesueur, 1817)
  • Palythoa brevis Andres, 1883
  • Palythoa casigneta Walsh, 1967
  • Palythoa distans (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1866)
  • Palythoa dubiae Walsh, 1967
  • Palythoa eupaguri Marion, 1882
  • Palythoa fulva Walsh, 1967
  • Palythoa fulva (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
  • Palythoa gigantea Cubit & Williams, 1983
  • Palythoa glomerata Marion, 1882
  • Palythoa lutea (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
  • Palythoa mcmurrichi (Haddon & Shackleton, 1891)
  • Palythoa olivascens Brandt, 1835
  • Palythoa plana (Duchassaing & Michelotti, 1860)
  • Palythoa vanikorensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
  • Palythoa viridifusca (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)
  • Palythoa viridis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1833)

References

  1. ↑ Reimer, J. (2014). Palythoa Lamouroux, 1816. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=205785 on 2014-11-30
  2. ↑ Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2014. The Animal Diversity Web (online). Accessed at http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Palythoa/classification/
  3. ↑ "Moon Polyps". Animal-World. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
  4. ↑ Sprung, Julian. "Aquarium Invertebrates: Zoanthids: Polyps As Cute As A Button". Advanced Aquarist. Pomacanthus Publications, LLC. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
  5. ↑ Katrin Hoffmann, Maren Hermanns-Clausen, Claus Buhl, Markus W. Büchler, Peter Schemmer, Dietrich Mebs and Silke Kauferstein (2008) A case of palytoxin poisoning due to contact with zoanthid corals through a skin injury. Toxicon 51, no. 8: 1535-1537.
  6. ↑ Longo-White, Adrienne (7 April 2011). "Palythoa Toxica Poisoning - One Reefkeeper's Personal Experience With Palytoxin Poisoning". Advanced Aquarist. Pomacanthus Publications, LLC. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
  7. ↑ Deeds JR, Handy SM, White KD, Reimer JD (2011) Palytoxin Found in Palythoa sp. Zoanthids (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) Sold in the Home Aquarium Trade. PLoS ONE 6(4): e18235. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018235
  8. ↑ Nicholas Violand Aquarium Science: Palytoxin and You, Tropical Fish Hobbyist Magazine
  9. ↑ Reimer, James Davis, Shusuke Ono, Kiyotaka Takishita, Junzo Tsukahara, and Tadashi Maruyama. "Molecular Evidence Suggesting Species in the Zoanthid Genera Palythoa and Protopalythoa (Anthozoa: Hexacorallia) Are Congeneric." Zoological Science 23.1 (2006): 87-94. Web.
  10. ↑ Reimer, J. (2014). Protopalythoa Verrill, 1900. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=100795 on 2014-12-03
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